Trump slapped similar tariffs on EU steel and aluminum during his first term in office, which enraged European and other allies. The EU also imposed countermeasures in retaliation at the time, raising tariffs on U.S.-made motorcycles, bourbon, peanut butter and jeans, among other items.

As tariffs "ramp up", those in Europe will "suffer most" because the EU's most important industries – cars, electrical equipment, appliances – are "exactly those where China has built the biggest advantages" and is "in position to grab the biggest piece" of any available "trade surplus pie".